EAR INFECTION AND ITS TREATMENT

The human ear has three main sections, which consist of the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Sound waves enter your outer ear and travel through your ear canal to the middle ear. The ear canal channels the waves to your eardrum, a thin, sensitive membrane stretched tightly over the entrance to your middle ear. The waves cause your eardrum to vibrate. It passes these vibrations on to the hammer, one of three tiny bones in your ear. The hammer vibrating causes the anvil, the small bone touching the hammer, to vibrate. The anvil passes these vibrations to the stirrup, another small bone which touches the anvil. From the stirrup, the vibrations pass into the inner ear. The stirrup touches a liquid filled sack and the vibrations travel into the cochlea, which is shaped like a shell. Inside the cochlea, there are hundreds of special cells attached to nerve fibers, which can transmit information to the brain. The brain processes the information from the ear and lets us distinguish between different types of sounds.

What Is a Middle Ear Infection?
Middle ear infections are one of the most common childhood problems. Let's start by talking about infections. An infection (say: in-fek-shun) happens when germs like bacteria and viruses get inside the body and cause trouble. Germs can get into your ears. The ear is divided into three parts: outer, middle, and inner. When the germs bother your outer ear, it's called swimmer's ear.
The middle ear is a small pocket of air behind the eardrum. You have a middle ear infection when germs get into the middle ear and the area fills up with fluid (or pus), which contains germ-fighting cells. When the pus builds up, your ear starts to feel like a balloon that is ready to pop, which can really hurt

How to Prevent Ear Infections
What can kids do to prevent ear infections? You can avoid places where people are smoking, for one. Cigarette smoke can keep your eustachian tubes from working properly.
You also can try not to catch colds. These steps can help:
Stay away from people who have colds, if possible.
Wash your hands regularly.
Try not to touch your nose and eyes.
Good luck staying clear of colds and keeping those pesky germs out of your ears

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF OPEN HEART

The heart is the muscular organ of the circulatory system that constantly pumps blood throughout the body. Approximately the size of a clenched fist, the heart is composed of cardiac muscle tissue that is very strong and able to contract and relax rhythmically throughout a person's lifetime
The heart has four separate compartments or chambers. The upper chamber on each side of the heart, which is called an atrium, receives and collects the blood coming to the heart. The atrium then delivers blood to the powerful lower chamber, called a ventricle, which pumps blood away from the heart through powerful, rhythmic contractions

The human heart is actually two pumps in one. The right side receives oxygen-poor blood from the various regions of the body and delivers it to the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen is absorbed in the blood. The left side of the heartreceives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and delivers it to the rest of the body

The contraction of the cardiac muscle tissue in the ventricles is called systole. When the ventricles contract, they force the blood from their chambers into the arteries leaving the heart. The left ventricle empties into the aorta and the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery. The increased pressure due to the contraction of the ventricles is called systolic pressure

The relaxation of the cardiac muscle tissue in the ventricles is called diastole. When the ventricles relax, they make room to accept the blood from the atria. The decreased pressure due to the relaxation of the ventricles is called diastolic pressure

BREST AUGMENTATION PROCEDURE AND TYPES

lso known as augmentation mammaplasty, breast augmentation involves using implants to fulfill your desire for fuller breasts or to restore breast volume lost after weight reduction or pregnancy

Incision types-

Inframammary - an incision is placed below the breast in the infra-mammary fold (IMF). This incision is the most common approach and affords maximum access for precise dissection and placement of an implant. It is often the preferred technique for silicone gel implants due to the longer incisions required. This method can leave slightly more visible scars in smaller breasts which don't drape over the IMF. In addition, the scar may heal thicker.

Periareolar - an incision is placed along the areolar border. This incision provides an optimal approach when adjustments to the IMF position or mastopexy (breast lift) procedures are planned. The incision is generally placed around the inferior half, or the medial half of the areola's circumference. Silicone gel implants can be difficult to place via this incision due to the length of incision required (~ 5 cm) for access. As the scars from this method occur on the edge of the areola, they are often less visible than scars from inframammary incisions in women with lighter areolar pigment. There is a higher incidence of capsular contracture with this technique.

Transaxillary - an incision is placed in the armpit and the dissection tunnels medially. This approach allows implants to be placed with no visible scars on the breast and is more likely to consistently achieve symmetry of the inferior implant position. Revisions of transaxillary-placed implants may require inframammary or periareolar incisions (but not always). Transaxillary procedures can be performed with or without an endoscope.

Transumbilical (TUBA)[23] - a less common technique where an incision is placed in the navel and dissection tunnels superiorly. This approach enables implants to be placed with no visible scars on the breast, but makes appropriate dissection and implant placement more difficult.[citation needed] In that regard, it is pertinent that a published medical journal report [24] analyzed a consecutive series of more than 1300 TUBA cases done by a single surgeon over a 15 year span, with no instance of incorrect implant placement. Transumbilical procedures are performed bluntly, with or without an endoscope (tiny lighted video camera) to assist dissection. This technique is not appropriate for placing silicone gel implants due to potential damage of the implant shell if attempting insertion through the small 2 cm incision in the navel, and as those implants are pre-filled they cannot be passed through that incision.

Transabdominoplasty (TABA)[25] - procedure similar to TUBA, where the implants are tunneled up from the abdomen into bluntly dissected pockets while a patient is simultaneously undergoing an abdominoplasty procedure.

Areolar Vertical Approach (AVA)[26] - the technique created by Dr. Lejour and developed by Dr. Van Thienen, is a very similar approach to the periareolar as the insicion is the same, but leaves a more extended submuscular pocket for the Silicon Gel Implants, through the transglandular sectione to the top pectoral fascia. The cavity is drained after being washed with Saline solution before the implants are placed. This technique developed in Argentina was proved to have excelent results even after numerous long term surgeries.

BREST AUGMENTATION

BEFORE AND AFTER BREST AUGMENTATION

Age: 21
Postoperative Cup Size: 34C
Height Inches: 2
Type of Implant: Round, Saline, Style 68MP
Weight: 132
Height Feet: 5
Preoperative Cup Size: 34A

A breast implant is a prosthesis used to alter the size and shape of a woman's breasts (known as breast augmentation, breast enlargement, mammoplasty enlargement, augmentation mammoplasty or the common slang term boob job) for cosmetic reasons, to reconstruct the breast (e.g. after a mastectomy or to correct congenital chest wall deformities), or as an aspect of male-to-female sex reassignment surgery. Pectoral implants are a related device used in cosmetic and reconstructive procedures of the male chest wall. A breast tissue expander is a temporary breast implant used during staged breast reconstruction procedures. According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, breast augmentation is the most commonly performed cosmetic surgical procedure in the United States. According to data collected by the American Society of Plastic Surgery, in 2007, 307,230 breast augmentation procedures were performed in the U.S., a 12% decrease compared to the previous year. This decrease has been associated with the financial challenges posed by a struggling economy. Despite the decrease, however, breast augmentation surgeries remained as the number one surgical cosmetic procedure performed in the U.S.
There are two primary types of breast implants: saline-filled and silicone-gel-filled implants. Saline implants have a silicone elastomer shell filled with sterile saline liquid. Silicone gel implants have a silicone shell filled with a viscous silicone gel. Several alternative types of breast implants had been developed, such as polypropylene string or soy oil, but these are no longer manufactured.

ANTI-BIOTICS

WHAT ARE ANTI-BIOTICS
Antibiotics are strong medicines used for treating infections, including life-threatening infectious diseases. But antibiotics can cause more harm than good when they aren't used the right way. You can protect yourself and your family by knowing when you should use antibiotics and when you should not.
MECHANISM OF ACTION
No. Antibiotics only work against infections caused by bacteria, fungus and by certain parasites. They don't work against any infections caused by viruses. Viruses cause colds, the flu and most coughs and sore throats.
BACTERIA RESISTENCE
Usually antibiotics kill bacteria or stop them from growing. However, some bacteria have become resistant to specific antibiotics. This means that the antibiotics no longer work against them. Bacteria become resistant more quickly when antibiotics are used too often or are not used correctly (such as not taking a full course of antibiotics as prescribed by your doctor).Resistant bacteria sometimes can be treated with different antibiotics to which the bacteria have not yet become resistant. These medicines may have to be given intravenously (through a vein) in a hospital. A few kinds of resistant bacteria are untreatable.

NEED OF ANTIBIOTICS
Colds and flu. Viruses cause these illnesses. They can't be cured with antibiotics.
Cough or bronchitis. Viruses almost always cause these. However, if you have a problem with your lungs or an illness that lasts a long time, bacteria may actually be the cause. Your doctor may decide to try using an antibiotic.
Sore throat. Most sore throats are caused by viruses and don't need antibiotics. However, strep throat is caused by bacteria. Your doctor can determine if you have strep throat and can prescribe an antibiotic.
Ear infections. There are several types of ear infections. Antibiotics are used for some (but not all) ear infections.
Sinus infections. Antibiotics are often used to treat sinus infections. However, a runny nose and yellow or green mucus do not necessarily mean you need an antibiotic

HEPATITIS B TREATMENT

Interferon Alpha (Intron A) is given by injection several times a week for six months to a year, or sometimes longer. The drug can cause side effects such as flu-like symptoms, depression, and headaches. Approved 1991 and available for both children and adults.
Pegylated Interferon (Pegasys) is given by injection once a week usually for six months to a year. The drug can cause side effects such as flu-like symptoms and depression. Approved May 2005 and available only for adults.
Lamivudine (Epivir-HBV, Zeffix, or Heptodin) is a pill that is taken once a day, with few side effects, for at least one year or longer. Approved 1998 and available for both children and adults.
Adefovir Dipivoxil (Hepsera) is a pill taken once a day, with few side effects, for at least one year or longer. Approved September 2002 for adults. Pediatric clinical trials are in progress.
Entecavir (Baraclude) is a pill taken once a day, with few side effects, for at least one year or longer. Approved April 2005 for adults. Pediatric clinical trials are in progress.
Telbivudine (Tyzeka, Sebivo) is a pill taken once a day, with few side effects, for at least one year or longer. Approved October 2006 for adults.
Tenofovir (Viread) is a pill taken once a day, with few side effects, for at least one year or longer. Approved August 2008 for adults.

APPROVED DRUGS FOR ADULTS

The future looks bright for individuals living with chronic hepatitis B. Only a decade ago there were no treatment options. Although there is still no complete cure for hepatitis B, there are 7 approved drugs for adults (2 for children) and many promising new drugs in development. Current treatments seem to be most effective in those who show signs of active liver disease
Not every person with chronic hepatitis B needs to be on medication. You should talk to your doctor about whether you are a good candidate for drug therapy or a clinical trial. Be sure that you understand the pros and cons of each treatment option.
Whether you decide to start treatment or not, it is very important to be seen by a liver specialist or doctor knowledgeable about hepatitis B on a regular basis.

PHYSIOLOGY OF BRAIN

BRAIN-The brain is a soft, spongy mass of tissue. It is protected by the bones of the skull and three thin membranes called meninges. Watery fluid called cerebrospinal fluid cushions the brain. This fluid flows through spaces between the meninges and through spaces within the brain called ventricles.
A network of nerves carries messages back and forth between the brain and the rest of the body. Some nerves go directly from the brain to the eyes, ears, and other parts of the head. Other nerves run through the spinal cord to connect the brain with the other parts of the body. Within the brain and spinal cord, glial cells surround nerve cells and hold them in place.
The brain directs the things we choose to do (like walking and talking) and the things our body does without thinking (like breathing). The brain is also in charge of our senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell), memory, emotions, and personality.
The three major parts of the brain control different activities

CEREBRUM- The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is at the top of the brain. It uses information from our senses to tell us what is going on around us and tells our body how to respond. It controls reading, thinking, learning, speech, and emotions.
The cerebrum is divided into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, which control separate activities. The right hemisphere controls the muscles on the left side of the body. The left hemisphere controls the muscles on the right side of the body

CEREBELLUM- The cerebellum is under the cerebrum at the back of the brain. The cerebellum controls balance and complex actions like walking and talking

BRAIN STEM - The brain stem connects the brain with the spinal cord. It controls hunger and thirst. It also controls breathing, body temperature, blood pressure, and other basic body functions

PARKINSON'S DISEASE AND ITS TREATMENT

Levodopa is the primary Western medicine for Parkinson's disease. Levodopa produces strong side effects that include:• Cramps• Nausea• Hypotension• Constipation• Lack of bladder control• Interference with memory• Emotional anxiety• Changes in blood pressure• Explosive diarrhea• Dry itchy skin• Dry eyes• Intermittent effects which interfere with movement
It appears that the side effects of Levodopa bear an uncomfortable resemblance to the symptoms of Parkinson's disease that it is intended to treat, which raises the question – if Levodopa is missing from the system, why does it exacerbate the Parkinson condition itself?
Ayurveda has effectively treated and cured Parkinson's disease for thousands of years. Through a combination of intensive research, ancient Ayurvedic sources, and the clinical experiences at the Sharma Ayurveda Clinic, Dr. Mukesh Paneri, a 6th generation Ayurvedic physician, has created Ayurvedic formulas and drugs for the treatment of Parkinson's. Dr. Mukesh Paneri personally formulates and prepares his own Ayurvedic medicines. These compounded Ayurvedic formulae may be adjusted if they produce minor effects such as occasional constipation and mild dizzy spells in the early phase of treatment, but such minor possible side effects are not contra-indicative of a cure. Unlike Western medicines, Dr. Paneri's treatment has cured patients completely from Parkinson's disease.
In recent times, Ayurveda has become a household word, and factory-produced versions of generic products bearing Ayurvedic names have begun to appear on the shelves of health food stores. These imitative medications should not be confused with the type of medications made by the Sharma Ayurveda Clinic, under the expert guidance of Dr. Mukesh Paneri. Not surprisingly, in manufacturing over-the-counter versions of specific Ayurvedic medicines, the same pressure to reduce cost by reducing quality is there, just as it is present in any mass-marketed product. For this reason, the handcrafted medicines from the Sharma Ayurveda Clinic are precious due to their authenticity and complete lack of compromise in the quality of the often very expensive ingredients used to compound them.
The powerful effect of the Ayurvedic cure developed by Dr. Paneri is that it addresses the cause, and not the symptom, of Parkinson's disease. Without this subtle understanding of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease and their origins, it is not possible for Western medicine to develop an effective cure. Dr. Paneri has experienced great success in the remission of Parkinson's symptoms, and in many cases, the cure itself, after which the patient is no longer required to take any type of medication to remain free of Parkinson's disease.
First improvements are usually seen within 8 to 10 months, and 1 to 4 years later, the disease disappears 90% to 99%. The medicines do not have to be taken again. Referrals from cured patients and patients currently under treatment around the world are available through Dr. Paneri.

DIABETIC CARE

If you have diabetes, you need to take some precautions, in your day to day life as well and not only at those times, when you feel sick. Here are some precautions that you can take in your everyday life:
You should monitor your blood glucose level regularly. Depending on the severity of your condition, your doctor would tell you about the intervals, in which you should take the test.
You should take regular doses of medicine or insulin, as have been prescribed.
Regular exercise proves to be useful in controlling glucose levels. However, you should avoid few exercises, that are known to cause further complications like cardiovascular diseases, hypoglycemia etc.
In case your glucose level drops suddenly during or after exercise, you should consume a fruit juice or some similar drink that provides you with sugar.
Weight reduction is a key of success in managing diabetes; hence take all the measures of carb control, what you can.
In case you are suffering from any ailment like flu, cold or any other disease or infection, some extra precautions need to be taken, to avoid further complications by diabetes:
Check your blood sugar level more frequently, to ensure that no harm is being caused by diabetes.
The illness may force some changes in your diet; consult your doctor/endocrinologist about the changes you need to make in your diabetes medicine accordingly.
You should drink lots of water and other clear liquids.
Remember not to cut yourself completely from food even if you are not experiencing hunger.
Consult the doctor, if you feel abnormal in any manner. For example you may be feeling excessively sleepy, giddy, may have trouble with urination etc.
Even though diabetes is a chronic condition, the same does not mean, that you will have to avoid every activity you enjoy, once you contract it. You can have the same amount of fun, provided, that you take certain precautions. Remember, if you have diabetes, you cannot ignore the precautions, nor do you need to get bogged down completely by them.

SYMPTOMS OF ASTHMA

People with asthma experience symptoms when the airways tighten, inflame, or fill with mucus. Common asthma symptoms include:
Coughing, especially at night
Wheezing
Shortness of breath
Chest tightness, pain, or pressure
Still, not every person with asthma has the same symptoms in the same way. You may not have all of these symptoms, or you may have different symptoms of asthma at different times. Your symptoms may also vary from one asthma attack to the next, being mild during one and severe during another.
Some people with asthma may go for extended periods without having any symptoms, interrupted by periodic worsening of their symptoms called asthma attacks. Others might have asthma symptoms every day. In addition, some people may only have asthma during exercise or asthma with viral infections like colds.
Mild asthma attacks are generally more common. Usually, the airways open up within a few minutes to a few hours. Severe attacks are less common but last longer and require immediate medical help. It is important to recognize and treat even mild symptoms to help you prevent severe episodes and keep asthma under better control.
Know the Early Symptoms of Asthma
Early warning signs are changes that happen just before or at the very beginning of an asthma attack. These signs may start before the well-known symptoms of asthma and are the earliest signs that your asthma is worsening.
In general, these signs are not severe enough to stop you from going about your daily activities. But by recognizing these signs, you can stop an asthma attack or prevent one from getting worse. Early warning signs include:
Frequent cough, especially at night
Losing your breath easily or shortness of breath
Feeling very tired or weak when exercising
Wheezing or coughing after exercise
Feeling tired, easily upset, grouchy, or moody
Decreases or changes in lung function as measured on a peak flow meter
Signs of a cold or allergies (sneezing, runny nose, cough, nasal congestion, sore throat, and headache)
Trouble sleeping
If you have early warning signs or symptoms, you should take more asthma medication as described in your asthma action plan.
Know the Asthma Symptoms in Children
Asthma affects as many as 10% to 12% of children in the United States and is the leading cause of chronic illness in children. For unknown reasons, the incidence of asthma in children is steadily increasing. While asthma symptoms can begin at any age, most children have their first asthma symptoms by age 5.
Asthma is characterized by inflammation of the bronchial tubes with increased production of sticky secretions inside the tubes. Not all children with asthma wheeze. Chronic coughing with asthma may be the only obvious sign, and a child’s asthma may go unrecognized if the cough is attributed to recurrent bronchitis

ALKALOID CLASSIFICATION

The classification of the alkaloids is complex and may be guided by a set of rules that take into account the structure and other chemical features of the alkaloid molecule, its biological origin, as well as the biogenetic origin where known.[2][3] For example, where the biosynthesis pathway of an alkaloid is unknown, it may be grouped based on structural similarities with known compounds, including non-nitrogenous compounds, or by the organism(s) from which the alkaloid was isolated.[3]
Pyridine group: piperine, coniine, trigonelline, arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine, cytisine, lobeline, nicotine, anabasine, sparteine, pelletierine.
Pyrrolidine group: hygrine, cuscohygrine, nicotine
Tropane group: atropine, cocaine, ecgonine, scopolamine, catuabine
Indolizidine group: senecionine, swainsonine
Quinoline group: quinine, quinidine, dihydroquinine, dihydroquinidine, strychnine, brucine, veratrine, cevadine
Isoquinoline group: opium alkaloids (papaverine, narcotine, narceine), pancratistatin, sanguinarine, hydrastine, berberine, emetine, berbamine, oxyacanthine
Phenanthrene alkaloids: opium alkaloids (morphine, codeine, thebaine, oripavine)
Phenethylamine group: mescaline, ephedrine, dopamine
Indole group:
Tryptamines: serotonin, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenine, psilocybin
Ergolines (the ergot alkaloids): ergine, ergotamine, lysergic acid
Beta-carbolines: harmine, harmaline, tetrahydroharmine
Yohimbans: reserpine, yohimbine
Vinca alkaloids: vinblastine, vincristine
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) alkaloids: mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine
Tabernanthe iboga alkaloids: ibogaine, voacangine, coronaridine
Strychnos nux-vomica alkaloids: strychnine, brucine
Purine group:
Xanthines: caffeine, theobromine, theophylline
Terpenoid group:
Aconitum alkaloids: aconitine
Steroid alkaloids (containing a steroid skeleton in a nitrogen containing structure):
Solanum (e.g. potato and tomato) alkaloids (solanidine, solanine, chaconine)
Veratrum alkaloids (veratramine, cyclopamine, cycloposine, jervine, muldamine)[4]
Fire Salamander alkaloids (samandarin)
Others: conessine
Quaternary ammonium compounds: muscarine, choline, neurine
Miscellaneous: capsaicin, cynarin, phytolaccine, phytolaccotoxin

PHARMACOLOGY OF DRUGS USED IM THE TREATMENT OF MALARIA

Artesunate is an antimalarial agent, available in oral, rectal and parenteral formulations, that provides a rapid clinical effect in patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. The rapidity of effect, availability of an intravenous and intramuscular formulation and convenient dosage regimen make artesunate an ideal candidate for the treatment of severe malaria, including cerebral disease. While some results have been promising, there is no clear evidence to date that artesunate reduces mortality in patients with cerebral malaria to any greater extent than standard quinine therapy. When given as monotherapy, treatment should be continued for at least 5 to 7 days to prevent recrudescence. Combination therapy with mefloquine allows artesunate to be administered over 3 days or less, with a satisfactory clinical outcome maintained. Although optimal dosages remain to be determined, this combination continues to provide the rapid onset of clinical effect observed with artesunate monotherapy, but decreases the rate of recrudescence to 2% (i.e. radical cure rate of 98%) when used as treatment in patients with uncomplicated malaria from areas with a high risk of multidrug-resistance falciparum malaria. Although assessment of tolerability is complicated by the difficulty of distinguishing between disease- and treatment-related events, artesunate and artesunate-mefloquine combinations appear to be well tolerated in adults and children. Indeed, it is possible that prior administration of artesunate may reduce the incidence of mefloquine-induced vomiting. Clinical findings to date have not revealed any pattern of resistance to artesunate after use of the drug. However, given the history of the development of resistance to other antimalarial drugs, the use of artesunate should be restricted to areas of multidrug resistance, the drug should be used in combination with a longer acting agent such as mefloquine, and it should be used in regimens that provide radical cure rates of 90 to 100%. If used according to these treatment principles, artesunate will provide a well tolerated and valuable addition to the current extremely limited treatment options for multidrug-resistant falciparum malaria, a widespread parasitic disease associated with considerable mortality.

STOMACH ULCERS

stomach ulcer (also called a peptic ulcer) is a small erosion (hole) in the gastrointestinal tract. The most common type, duodenal, occurs in the first 12 inches of small intestine beyond the stomach. Ulcers that form in the stomach are called gastric ulcers. An ulcer is not contagious or cancerous. Duodenal ulcers are almost always benign, while stomach ulcers may become malignant.
Stomach ulcer disease is common, affecting millions of Americans yearly. The size of a stomach ulcer can range between 1/8 of an inch to 3/4 of an inch.
STOMACH ULCERS AND ITS CAUSES
The direct cause of peptic ulcers is the destruction of the gastric or intestinal mucosal lining of the stomach by hydrochloric acid, an acid normally present in the digestive juices of the stomach. Infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori is thought to play an important role in causing both gastric and duodenal ulcers. Helicobacter pylori may be transmitted from person to person through contaminated food and water. Antibiotics are the most effective treatment for Helicobacter pylori peptic ulcers.
Injury of the gastric mucosal lining, and weakening of the mucous defenses are also responsible for gastric ulcers. Excess secretion of hydrochloric acid, genetic predisposition, and psychological stress are important contributing factors in the formation and worsening of duodenal ulcers.
Another major cause of ulcers is the chronic use of anti-inflammatory medications, such as aspirin. Cigarette smoking is also an important cause of ulcer formation and ulcer treatment failure.

BLOOD CLOTTING-ANTICOAGULANTS

Anticoagulants are nonhabit-forming medications that keep existing blood clots from growing larger and prevent the formation of new blood clots.
Blood clots are an essential part of the body’s defense against injury. Without blood clots, a person would bleed to death from a relatively minor wound. However, when blood clots form in inappropriate locations, such as inside arteries, the result can be catastrophic. The danger is that a blood clot will prevent the flow of oxygen-rich blood through the vessel, thus resulting in the death of tissue beyond the clot. If this occurs in the heart or brain, a heart attack or stroke may result. If it occurs in peripheral arteries, it may result in the death of muscle and tissue beyond the clot. In internal organs, such as the kidneys, serious organ damage can result. Blood clots can also occur in the veins. In some situations, there is a risk that blood clots that occur in large veins can break off and travel through the circulatory system until they reach the heart or lungs, resulting in a heart attack or pulmonary embolism. To prevent these medical problems, anticoagulants may be prescribed for heart patients or other high-risk patients to prevent new blood clots from forming and to keep existing blood clots from growing larger.
The process of blood clotting is complex, but can be roughly understood to include three phases: coagulation, platelet aggregation and formation of the fibrin clot. Anticoagulants deal only with the first phase of blood clotting, or the cascade of chemical reactions that begins the blood clotting process. Other medications, called antiplatelets or clot-busting drugs, interfere with the platelet aggregation and clot-formation phase, respectively. Each of the three classes of drugs has a different clinical use.
Anticoagulants are nonhabit-forming medications that are used to treat and prevent vascular diseases caused by blood clots. Under normal conditions, blood should not clot unless the body has been injured. However, there are conditions, such as atherosclerosis and venous diseases, that cause blood clots to form even when a person has not been wounded. These blood clots can be dangerous if they are large enough to block a blood vessel (a thrombus), or if either a whole clot or pieces of the clot break off, travel through the bloodstream, and block a blood vessel in another part of the body (an embolism). Either of these situations could lead to heart attack or stroke. Therefore, anticoagulants may be prescribed to reduce the risk of these dangerous events

LEPROSY AND SYMPTOMS

Leprosy (from the Greek lepi, meaning scales on a fish), or Hansen's disease (HD), is a chronic disease caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis.[1][2] Leprosy is primarily a granulomatous disease of the peripheral nerves and mucosa of the upper respiratory tract; skin lesions are the primary external symptom.[3] Left untreated, leprosy can be progressive, causing permanent damage to the skin, nerves, limbs and eyes. Leprosy does not directly cause body parts to fall off on their own accord;[4] instead they become disfigured or autoamputated as a result of disease symptoms.[5]
Historically, leprosy has affected mankind for at least 4,000 years,[6] and was well-recognized in the civilizations of ancient China, Egypt, and India,[7] but it is unknown if it is the same disease mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.[8] In 1995, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that between 2 and 3 million people were permanently disabled because of leprosy.[9] In the past 20 years, 15 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy.[10] Although the forced quarantine or segregation of patients is unnecessary in places where adequate treatments are available — and can be considered unethical[clarification needed][citation needed] — many leper colonies still remain around the world, in countries such as India (where there are still more than 1,000 leper colonies),[10] China,[11] Romania,[12] Egypt, Nepal, Somalia, Liberia, Vietnam,[13] and Japan.[14] Leprosy was once believed to be highly contagious and sexually transmitted, and was treated with mercury—all of which applied to syphilis which was first described in 1530. It is now thought that many early cases of leprosy could have been syphilis.[15] Leprosy is in fact neither sexually transmitted nor is it highly infectious after treatment, as approximately 95% of people are naturally immune[16] and sufferers are no longer infectious after as little as 2 weeks of treatment. However, before treatment was developed, leprosy was certainly contagious.[17][18]
The age-old social stigma associated with the advanced form of leprosy lingers in many areas, and remains a major obstacle to self-reporting and early treatment. Effective treatment for leprosy appeared in the late 1930s with the introduction of dapsone and its derivatives. However, leprosy bacilli resistant to dapsone soon evolved and, due to overuse of dapsone, became widespread. It was not until the introduction of multidrug therapy (MDT) in the early 1980s that the disease could be diagnosed and treated successfully within the community.[19]
MDT for multibacillary leprosy consists of rifampicin, dapsone, and clofazimine taken over 12 months. Dosages adjusted appropriately for children and adults are available in all Primary Health Centres in the form of blister packages.[19] Single dose MDT for single lesion leprosy consists of rifampicin, ofloxacin, and minocycline. The move towards single dose treatment strategies has reduced the prevalence of disease in some regions since prevalence is dependent on duration of treatment.